FQXi 2012 Essay Contest "Which of Our Basic
Physical Assumptions Are Wrong?" http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21095.85925
The Theory of Infinite
Hierarchical Nesting of Matter as the Source of New Ideas
Sergey G. Fedosin
August 20, 2012
Abstract
With the help of the theory of infinite hierarchical nesting of matter
the need for change in the theoretical foundations of the scientific world
outlook is derived – in the philosophy; in the logic of thinking; in the system theory; in
cosmology; in interrelation of matter levels; in describing the properties of
matter carriers and the laws of their interaction; in the theory of
gravitation; in the analysis of the mass origin; in the theory of relativity;
in the theory of elementary particles; in thermodynamics and other fields of
knowledge. The possible ways are described of overcoming the difficulties and
challenges existing in a number of modern physical theories.
Introduction
Over the past 20 years, both in physics and in philosophy, new results
were obtained related to the rapid development of the theory of infinite
hierarchical nesting of matter. At the present time this theory claims to be
the dominant scientific paradigm, affecting the whole science. The logical
basis of the theory is syncretiсs or syncretic logic [1], which summarizes the
metaphysical (formal) logic, dialectical logic and various kinds of multivalued
logics. The philosophical basis of the theory of infinite hierarchical nesting
of matter is the philosophy of carriers, and carriers, which are the essence
and the fundamental principle of the world, are understood as any actual or
possible objects and subjects, without exception. Each carrier is associated
with energy, matter and information, and with other properties described by
philosophical categories. With the help of logic new philosophical laws for
carriers and their systems are formulated. Thus, the system theory is being
developed. This makes easier the analysis of connections between the carriers
of matter in cosmic systems, from the smallest particles to infinitely large
stellar and metagalactic systems.
In physics, the theory of infinite hierarchical nesting of matter in
order to describe the structure of the Universe introduces into consideration
the similarity of matter levels, including SPΦ symmetry of the similarity of physical laws at
the basic matter levels, presents the scale dimension as the fifth dimension of
spacetime, substantiates the Le Sage’s theory of gravitation as the physical
mechanism for the emergence of gravitation at all levels of matter and strong
gravitation at the level of atoms and elementary particles. Applying the theory
of similarity between the stellar and the atomic matter levels makes it
possible to construct substantial models of elementary particles, as the
alternative to the Standard Model. In particular, the internal structure of the
neutron is assumed to be the same as the structure of the neutron star.
Among various predictions of the theory of infinite hierarchical nesting
of matter are the existence of new particles (including praons and nuons) as
the basis of dark matter; the denial of the Big Bang; the absence of black
holes; the concept of quarks as quasiparticles; the concept of the electron spin as a
dynamical effect, which arises only at the moment of the electron transition
from one atomic energy level to another; the complex multicomponent structure
of different types of neutrinos.
Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of
Matter
In the Theory of Infinite
Hierarchical Nesting of Matter all the substance of the Universe can be
divided to parts and arranged at separate scale levels, where this substance is
included in the composition of the corresponding cosmic objects [2], [3], [4].
There are basic and intermediate levels of matter. The basic levels include the
atomic and stellar-planetary matter levels, between which the intermediate
levels are located. The matter levels the objects of which are smaller than the
elementary particles, or larger than the visible Universe, are now inaccessible
for research and are studied by theoretical methods.
The intermediate matter levels between the atomic and stellar systems
include: molecular complexes; cosmic dust; micrometeorites; small meteorites;
meteorites and comets; large meteorites and comets; asteroids, comets and minor
moons of planets; large asteroids, moons and small planets. In the transition
from stars to the Metagalaxy there are the following intermediate levels of
matter: massive stars – star clusters – dwarf galaxies; dwarf galaxies – normal galaxies; massive galaxies – superclusters of galaxies;
superclusters of galaxies – normal metagalaxies.
The feature of the matter levels is that the objects at these levels
form groups separate from each other, which allows us to distinguish one level
of matter from another. If in the coordinate system 
we
lay along the axis 
the sizes of the objects, and along the
axis 
– the
concentration of these objects in cosmic space, we shall find that the cosmic
objects are distributed in groups so that between the groups there are almost
no objects. Another feature is that on the scale axis of sizes the matter
levels are located equidistant on the logarithmic scale. This means that the
sizes and masses of objects at the levels of matter increase exponentially. In
this case, the ratios of sizes and masses for the objects of two adjacent
intermediate levels are equal to the corresponding ratios for other adjacent
levels of matter. Denoting these ratios as the coefficients of similarity in
sizes and mass, by means of repeated multiplication by these coefficients we
can find the sizes and masses of objects at any level of matter, and predict
the parameters of those objects that are out of the reach of measurement
instruments.
The coefficients of similarity between the atoms and planetary systems
can be conveniently found at the example of the hydrogen
system consisting of the central body (the nucleus of the hydrogen
atom, the main-sequence star of the lowest mass) and the moon (the electron,
the planet - the analogue of the electron) [3]. These coefficients, obtained by
dividing the corresponding values by each other, are shown in Table 1. For the
coefficient of similarity in mass we obtain, for example: 
.
Table 1. The parameters and similarity coefficients for
the hydrogen system
|
Mass, kg |
The radius
of the orbit, m |
The velocity in the orbit, m/s |
|
Planetary
System |
||
|
|
|
|
|
Hydrogen
atom |
||
|
|
|
|
|
The
similarity coefficients |
||
|
|
|
|
Between the levels of atoms and main-sequence stars there are 9
intermediate levels of matter, from the level of molecular complexes to the
level of low-massive planets.
The evolution of main sequence stars occurs in such a way that over time
they become white dwarfs and neutron stars. The planets around stars have
another fate – they slowly lose the orbital angular momentum, approach their stars,
and finally disintegrate under the influence of gravitational forces. The metal
and magnetized cores of planets are the basis of the material forming the discs
around neutron stars. At the level of stars, the closest to the nucleons in
their properties are the neutron stars, and the discs around the stars are
similar to electron discs in the atom. Since the nucleons and the neutron stars
are considered analogues, then their evolution must be analogous. This means
that before the formation of nucleons the substance first must be gathered by
some force of attraction into the objects, similar in their properties to the
main sequence stars. The mass of these objects must exceed the mass of nucleons
as the mass of some main-sequence stars exceeds the mass of neutron stars. We
can assume further transformation of substance within these objects, which is
similar to thermonuclear reactions in the interior of stars. The result must be
the formation of neutrons in the same way as in a supernova explosion a neutron
star is born. Then, in the process of beta decay of neutrons, the protons and
electrons appear, atoms and molecules are formed, the substance is created.
This pattern can be repeated at all the basic levels of matter, the number of
which in the Universe can be infinite. In this case the formation of particles,
substance and matter at the highest levels of matter does not require the Big
Bang and is the repetition of the evolution at the lowest levels of matter.
Table 2 shows the coefficients of similarity between the basic levels of
matter for such objects as the proton and the neutron star. The radius of the
proton in Table 2 corresponds to the results of the experiments and can be
found theoretically in the self-consistent model [5]. The speed of light is
considered as the characteristic velocity of the substance inside the proton,
since the rest energy of the proton is equal to the absolute value of the total
energy (the binding energy of the substance).
Table 2. The parameters and similarity coefficients for
neutron stars and nucleons
|
Mass, kg |
Radius, m |
Characteristic velocity, m/s |
|
The neutron star |
||
|
|
|
|
|
Proton |
||
|
|
|
|
|
The
similarity coefficients |
||
|
|
|
|
The coefficients of similarity are an important tool for describing the similarity of matter levels and allow us
to compare the properties of objects at different levels of matter. Just as
with meter, kilogram, and second we can express all the mechanical units of
physical variables, with the values 
according to the theory of dimensions we can
find other coefficients of similarity. For example, the coefficient of
similarity in time can be obtained by the formula: 
. For
the similarity of nucleons and neutron stars 
,
which allows us to estimate the corresponding period of the nucleon rotation 
through the rotation period 
seconds of the most rapidly rotating pulsar
PSR J1748-2446ad: 
seconds.
Another example is the calculation of the stellar Planck
constant, characterizing the rotation at the level of stars. Taking
as the basis the reduced Planck constant (Dirac constant) 
, for
the objects of the type of neutron stars, we find: 
J∙s. Using the coefficients of similarity and
other standard physical constants, we can calculate the corresponding stellar constants for the level of stars, as well as for the
level of matter, the objects of which make up the nucleon substance. Suppose,
in particular, that as the neutron star contains 
nucleons, so nucleons contain the same number
of particles called "praons" [6]. Then the praon mass equals 
kg and the praon radius equals 
m.
From the scenario of the evolution of the substance particles described
above, it follows that at the level of elementary particles the particles must
exist, which are similar by their properties to such stars as white dwarfs. In
article [7] such particles are called "nuons". The radii of these
particles must be within 
m, and the masses do not exceed the masses of nucleons.
According to calculations the share of the nucleon substance in the visible
Universe equals 61 % of the total mass, and 39 % of the mass is in the form
nuons. Nuons are mostly concentrated in the outer and less dense parts of
galaxies, because with the high substance density the probability increases of
the interaction of nuons with nucleons with the subsequent decay of nuons (just
as white dwarfs decay in collisions with much denser neutron stars). Thus,
nuons form the basis of dark matter, the action of which is noticeably
manifested in galaxies.
Due to their large size relative to nucleons, nuons scatter the
electromagnetic waves that pass in the space. This leads to the following.
Firstly, the wave energy decreases exponentially with respect to the distance
traveled by them, which is expressed as the redshift of the spectra of distant
galaxies. Secondly, due to the scattering of photons by nuons the number of the
photons reaching the observer on the Earth decreases. As a result, the energy
of supernovae outbursts will seem less for the outbursts that occur further
from the observer. Thirdly, the interaction of the electromagnetic emission
with nuons leads to thermalisation of the emission, its transformation in the
emission typical of the black body. This emission has the temperature of 2,725
K and is known as the microwave background radiation. If we assume that these
effects are caused by nuons, then there is no need to explain the Hubble law by
the Universe expansion and to consider the Big Bang model.
Another objection to the Big Bang model is the inability of appearing in
the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter of singularities and
black holes as objects, absorbing any substance and not giving anything out
[3], [8]. If black holes exist, then they exist at all the basic levels of
matter. Then the black holes at the lowest levels of matter would have absorbed
any emission of particles and quanta since the time at these levels of matter
flows faster. This would lead to the absence of emission from the objects of
the lower levels of matter, which is the source of gravitons at the highest
levels of matter, and to the absence of gravitation in our world, which is not
observed [9]. The substance density of black holes of stellar masses must
exceed the density of nucleons, so nucleons must be crushed by gravitation.
However, as it is stated in article [10], the maximum possible gravitational
pressure from gravitons of the value 
Pa is not sufficient, if we take into account
the repulsive forces of the nucleons from each other. As a result, the
substance can be compressed by gravitation only to the state of neutron stars.
Neither nucleons, nor neutron stars turn into black holes, since they have
strong electromagnetic and gravitational fields around them. Due to these
fields the expulsion of the excess mass occurs, so that the critical increase
of the mass, leading to the formation of black holes, does not occur. Even
collisions of elementary particles with nucleons at superhigh energies, do not
produce black holes. But if black holes and singularities are not possible,
then we can not assume according to the Big Bang model that the Universe was formed
as a result of the explosion of the singularity, in which the substance was in
an extremely dense and hot state.
The logical development of the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting
of Matter was the discovering of the scale dimension [11]. The scale dimension is considered as the fifth
dimension of spacetime. In fact, it reveals as a special spatial dimension that
allows to determine the location of the object on the scale axis and to assess
the level of matter, to which the object belongs. If the scale axis is directed
toward increasing of the size, then during the motion along the axis the
observer will move from one matter level to another and observe larger objects.
However, we can introduce such principle of relativity, that the observer and
his instruments would change their properties (sizes, masses, characteristic
speeds) while moving along a scale axis in order to ensure that the observer
could not see during his motion any changes in the surrounding objects. For
this the conditions of SPΦ symmetry must be satisfied [3]. These
conditions consist in the fact that the properties of the instruments of the
observer during the transition from matter level 1 to matter level 2 must
change in direct proportion to the similarity coefficients between these levels
. In
this case, when observer is moving with the measuring instruments along the
scale axis, the properties of the objects and the properties of the measuring
instruments are synchronously changing. This scale principle of relativity at
the same time means that for local observers at any basic level of matter the
physical laws have the same form.
The Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter is applicable not
only to the carriers of matter in physics and chemistry, but is suitable for
the carriers of life, for various living creatures and organisms [1], [12]. It
turns out that living creatures, from tiny prions to whales, can be located at
the same levels of matter, as inanimate objects. Each level of living matter
has a certain range of masses and sizes of the living beings which belong to
this level, and the coefficients of similarity in masses and sizes between the
adjacent levels are the same. All living beings from prions to the largest
mammals fit into five levels of matter, at the sixth level there are
communities of living organisms and biocoenoses. Interestingly, that moving
from one matter level to another the features of living beings significantly
change, their organization or structure, new organs appear, the complexity of
organisms increases. Another conclusion is that the animate and inanimate in the
Universe are mutually complementary opposites that can not exist without each
other. In this case the main difference between the animate and inanimate is
supposedly that inside the animate the inner source of order is hidden, which
rules the living organism, and apparently this source of order is generated by
living beings at the lowest levels of matter.
Gravitation
Despite the fact that general relativity is a generally accepted theory
of gravitation, it has a fundamental drawback – it lacks the stress-energy tensor
of the gravitational field. As a result, the gravitational field is described
indirectly, through the metric tensor and the principle of equivalence. In
order to overcome this drawback within the special theory of relativity the Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation
(LITG) was developed, in which the stress-energy tensor of the gravitational
field is presented in the explicit form [3], [8], [9]. LITG predicts the
existence of the torsion field as the relativistic supplement to the
gravitational field. In its nature the gravitational torsion field is
completely analogous to the magnetic field in electrodynamics, while the
gravitational acceleration is the strength of the gravitational field and is written
similarly to the strength of the electric field. In the general theory of
relativity the action of the torsion field is presented as gravitomagnetic
force. Due to the torsion field in LITG the effect of gravitational induction was discovered [6].
The next step was the formulation of LITG in the general covariant form
suitable for use in curved spacetime. So the covariant
theory of gravitation (CTG) appeared.
In contrast to the general theory of relativity, in CTG the theory was
divided into three relatively independent parts. One of them describes the
principle of relativity in curved spacetime, while another describes the
gravitational field, and the third part specifies the interaction of the
substance and fields. Therefore in CTG three different equations must be
simultaneously solved – to find the metric, to determine the gravitational field (and to
determine the electromagnetic field, if it is present) and the equation of
motion of particles (bodies) and the wave quanta in the available fields. Since
CTG is an axiomatically constructed theory [6], it is possible to compare CTG
with the general theory of relativity and to axiomatize the general theory of
relativity itself [13]. Besides CTG was derived from the principle of least
action [14]. Further analysis led to Hamiltonian, which in the framework of CTG
specifies the relativistic energy of the system [15].
Among the obtained results is determining of the four-dimensional operator of proper-time-derivative, of the
generalized 4-velocity and 4-vector of Hamiltonian. Besides, identification of
the action function is made as of the function, with the help of which the
relativistic time dilation effect is calculated. In the derivation of the
equation for the metric from the principle of least action the physical meaning
of the cosmological constant 
was found, which follows from the relation: 
, where 
is the gravitational constant, 
is the speed of light,
is the
coefficient of the order of unity which depends on the properties of the
reference frame. This relation states that there is a connection between the
cosmological constant and the energy density 
of the system’s substance when this substance
is divided into small parts, scattered at infinity, and there it is motionless.
In this case, the density 
is the average substance density, which does
not contain the contribution from the mass-energy of the gravitational field,
which is zero at infinity. For such a large system as the observable Universe, corresponds by the order of magnitude to the average
density of the visible substance of the Universe.
Within the framework of CTG the problem is studied of mass as the measure of the body’s inertia,
taking into account the contribution of the mass-energy of the proper
gravitational (electromagnetic) field of the body to the mass [16], [17], [18].
The main conclusion is that if there is the scattered substance with the total
mass 
of all the particles of the substance, then in
case of the collapse of this substance into a gravitationally bound object the
mass of this object 
must be greater than .
In other words, the mass-energy of the gravitational field increases the mass
of the body the more, the denser is the body. The increase of the mass occurs
due to the work of the gravitational field. This conclusion is opposite to the
results of the general theory of relativity, where the body mass decreases due
to the action of the field.
In the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter it is assumed
that the mechanism of gravitation is described by the Le Sage’s theory of
gravitation. Numerous fluxes of gravitons permeate the space in all directions,
and if there are any two bodies, they will be attracted to each other due to
the effect of shielding of the graviton fluxes falling on these bodies. The
validity of this approach is confirmed in article [10], in which the Newton law
of gravitation is deduced, and the gravitational constant is expressed through
the characteristics of the graviton fluxes. Here the energy density of the
graviton fluxes 
J/m3,
the power of the energy flux of gravitons through unit area from unit solid
angle 
W/( sr∙m2),
the cross section of interaction of gravitons with the nucleon form of the
substance 
m2
were found.
The relation between the Le Sage’s theory of gravitation and the
covariant theory of gravitation is expressed by the fact that the gravitational
potential 
, the
gradient of which specifies the gravitational field strength 
, is
proportional to the difference between the energy density of graviton fluxes at
infinity far from the bodies and the energy density of graviton fluxes near the
body, where the gravitational potential is determined. This leads to the Newton
formula for the gravitational force 
, where 
is the gravitational constant, 
and 
are the masses of the attracting bodies, 
is the distance between the centers of the
bodies. Outside the single stationary body at the distance 
the potential is equal to 
and the field strength has the form: 
. Inside the
body the gravitational field strength depends on the density of the body
substance 
by the formula: 
. If we now
consider the moving body and make the Lorentz transformations for all the
physical quantities, the gravitational torsion field 
will appear, and the Lorentz-invariant
equations for the fields 
and 
will be similar to the Maxwell equations for
the electric field 
and the magnetic field 
.
According to the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter at
each basic level of matter there is its own form of gravitation. At the level
of stars and planets we have the ordinary gravitation and at the atomic matter
level the main force of gravitation is assumed to be strong gravitation. Under the influence of
gravitation at each basic level of matter the densest and stablest objects
appear, the substance of which is in equilibrium with the external pressure
from the fluxes of gravitons and with the internal pressure of the repulsion of
the substance particles from each other. At the level of stars such objects are
neutron stars, and at the level of elementary particles – nucleons, the
lifetime of which is very large. From these objects, which can carry the
electrical charge and have a strong magnetic field and the greatest
gravitational acceleration near the surface, there is the largest emission of
energetic particles and wave quanta. Even larger emission tales place during
the formation of such objects, the example of this is the formation of a
neutron star with emission of a huge flux of neutrinos. It is assumed that all
types of emission, which emerged at lower levels of matter, become gravitons
for the objects of higher levels of matter. According to calculations based on
the analysis of the density of the emitted energy, the gravitons for the
ordinary gravitation must be the emissions produced by the particles at the
praon level of matter or even at a lower level of matter [19]. For the electric
interaction of charged bodies the dynamic model was found similar to the Le
Sage’s theory [6], when in the fluxes of gravitons there are charged particles
affecting the charges of bodies. Thus it is possible to explain the existence
of cosmic objects and fields by the fact that fluxes of gravitons create the
densest objects such as nucleons and neutron stars, which in turn generate
fluxes of particles and emissions, becoming gravitons for the highest levels of
matter.
To calculate the strong
gravitational constant, acting at the level of elementary particles, two
methods are used [3]. In the first of them the similarity coefficients between
neutron stars and nucleons are used from Table 2. With their help, according to
the theory of dimensions the ordinary gravitational constant is converted into the strong gravitational
constant: 
.
In the second method, the electrical force of attraction between the
electron and the proton in the hydrogen atom at the Bohr radius 
is equated to the force from strong
gravitation. It follows:
, 
m3∙kg–1∙s–2,
where 
is the elementary charge, 
is the vacuum permittivity, 
and 
are the masses of the proton and the electron,
respectively.
As the universal force of attraction, strong gravitation must act
between any elementary particles, irrespective of whether they are hadrons or
leptons. Due to the strong gravitation the substance of elementary particles
must be bound, the atomic nuclei are formed as clusters of protons and
neutrons, as well as atoms and molecules. As the sizes of interacting objects
increase in the transition from the atomic to the stellar levels of matter, the
strong gravitation between the particles is converted into the ordinary
gravitation between the bodies.
Theory of relativity
Besides the theory of gravitation, the theory of relativity has
undergone significant change. The disadvantage of the special theory of
relativity is combination of two different axioms. If the axiom of the
applicability of the principle of relativity is acceptable from the standpoint
of physics, then the axiom of the constancy of the speed of light in inertial
reference frames seems more a convention than an axiom, which has its own
physical meaning. In this regard, in 2002 on the axiomatic basis the extended special theory of relativity
(ESTR) has been developed, which contains five axioms [8]. The difference of ESTR from special theory of
relativity is that instead of the axiom of the constancy of the speed of light
the axiom of the existence of an isotropic reference frame is used, in which
the speed of light propagation is equal in all directions and does not depend
on the speed of the light emitter. Despite the different axiomatics, in ESTR
all the formulas of the special theory of relativity are derived, as well as
the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light for all inertial
observers. In this case the constancy of the speed of light is a conditional
concept, which is the consequence of the procedure of space-time measurements,
when the electromagnetic wave during the measurements must pass a closed path
in space and return to the starting point.
In special theory of relativity all inertial reference frames are equal
so that the introduction of the ether, which specifies the preferred reference
frame, seems unnecessary. However, ESTR implies such a preferred coordinate
system, in which the speed of light is isotropic. In this case it is logical to
assume that in the isotropic reference frame the ether is isotropic, which is
associated with the propagation of electromagnetic quanta in it. Such ether can
be conceived as the fluxes of gravitons propagating in all directions. Under
gravitons tiny particles are meant, including charged particles like those
found in cosmic rays of high energies. The graviton composition can include
such particles as neutrinos and photons. As shown above, gravitons are formed
at the lowest levels of matter. The ether of this kind is discrete, consisting
of separate gravitons, and quasicontinuous, due to the multiplicity of
gravitons. According to [3], [10], if the system of bodies is moving at a
constant velocity, the force of gravitation does not depend on the velocity,
which leads to the principle of relativity and the motion by inertia. Since the
graviton ether passes also inside the material bodies, where the speed of light
depends on the properties of the substance, then the ether can be revealed
through its influence on the propagation of electromagnetic waves inside these
bodies, if these bodies move differently relative to the isotropic reference
frame.
The further development of the theory is the metric theory of relativity (MTR), which
includes as a particular case the special theory of relativity and ESTR, and
also substitutes the principle of general relativity in that part which
concerns the transformation of physical quantities from one frame to another
[6] [13]. MTR is built on the axiomatic basis and implies the dependence of the
spacetime metric on the properties of the test particles and waves, by which
the metric is measured. In contrast to the general theory of relativity, in MTR
the gravitational field of the body is the source of mass-energy in determining
the metric. Another difference of MTR is that instead of the equivalence
principle (the equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses, the forces of
any kind, and the gravitational forces) the principle of local equivalence of
the energy-momentum is used: "In the accelerated reference frame the
metric depends locally not on the type of acting force causing this
acceleration, but on the configuration of this force in spacetime of the
reference frame, determined by the stress-energy tensor".
Elementary particles
In our opinion, the absence of substantial, real physical models of the
structure of elementary particles significantly inhibits the development of the
theory of these particles. These models of particles can be constructed with
the help of the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter [3]. From the
similarity of the atomic and stellar levels of matter it follows that the
neutron corresponds to the neutron star, the proton is similar in its
properties to the magnetar, the pion is similar to the neutron star of the
minimum mass, and the analogue of the muon at the level of stars is the white
dwarf. In the substantial model of neutron,
this particle has in its center the positive charge and its shell is negatively
charged, which allows us to explain the opposite direction of the magnetic
moment of the neutron relative to the spin [6, § 11]. From this the instability
of the neutron follows leading to beta decay. The proton is described in the substantial model of proton as the analogue of magnetar, a
neutron star with the strong magnetic field and electric charge. It is assumed
that magnetars blow away protons and atomic nuclei by their electric fields,
turning these particles into cosmic rays of high energies.
In the substantial model nucleons consist of praons as neutron stars
consist of neutrons and a certain number of protons and electrons. In this
case, knowing only the mass, charge and magnetic moment of the proton, and
taking into account the strong gravitation as the main force at the level of
elementary particles, in accordance with the experimental data we can calculate
the radius of the proton, the density of its substance in the center and the
maximum angular velocity [5], [20]. Due to substantial models of nucleons, it
became possible to describe the specific mechanisms of interaction of
elementary particles with neutrinos, as well as to understand the internal structure
of neutrinos and the nature of weak interaction. With the help of strong
gravitation and the torsion field in the gravitational
model of strong interaction we can describe the strong interaction between
nucleons in atomic nuclei, to construct the models of the simplest nuclei, to
find the balance of forces and the distance between the nucleons in the
deuteron, to explain the dependence of the specific binding energy of the
nucleus on the mass of the nucleus [6, § 10].
The impossibility to obtain the quarks in the free state means that the
quarks are quasiparticles, i.e. the states of the substance inside hadrons. The
substantial models of nucleons allow us to construct the model of
quark quasiparticles and to reduce the six known quarks to different
combinations of the two states of the nucleon substance, 
–
phase and 
– phase.
Since all hadrons are considered to be composed of quarks, it follows that each
particle contains the corresponding quantity of – phase
and – phase of
the substance, specifying the mass, charge and magnetic moment of particles [6,
§ 12]. At the example of the interaction of pions with nucleons it is shown
that the peculiarities of emergence and the properties of resonances can be
explained through the interaction of particles by means of strong gravitation,
torsion field and electromagnetic forces. Thus, instead of quarks and gluons
introduced by quantum chromodynamics it becomes possible to consider the
emergence and the structure of elementary particles in the classical way, with
the help of the substantial models of particles. The weak point of the approach
of chromodynamics is seen in the fact that it can not explain what particles
the quarks themselves are composed of – since can these particles be the last bricks of matter?
From the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter and the substantial model of electron it follows that the electron
in the atom must be in the form of a flat disc, and at the level of stars such
discs around the neutron stars are called discons. In this picture it is
possible to understand the nature of the electron spin – the spin emerges at
the moment of transition of the electron from one energy state to another,
after which it disappears [6, § 14]. The spin of the electron and the
corresponding magnetic moment have dynamic nature, while the spin is that part
of the total angular momentum of rotation of the electron substance, which is
caused by the rotation of the electron disc
as a whole around the nucleus. The other main part of the total angular
momentum arises from the orbital rotation of the electron substance around the
center of inertia of the disc. The analysis of various phenomena with electrons
in the atom – the model of the helium atom with two electrons, the magnetic moments,
the multiplicity, the Lamb shift, magnetomechanical effects, etc., conform well
to the proposed model of the electron.
Conclusion
Due to the Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter it became
possible to find the alternative explanations in cases when the standard
theories clearly fail. For example, the main problem of the general theory of
relativity is the absence of the stress-energy tensor of the gravitational
field (which is the consequence of the representation of the gravitational
force by indirect geometrical methods, that is through the metric tensor,
instead of direct description of the physical force), in quantum chromodynamics
one of the numerous problems is the confinement of quarks, in quantum mechanics
the spin of the electron can not be explained, in cosmology the Big Bang model
contradicts the philosophy of physics (the whole infinite Universe can not be
formed due to the explosion of an infinitely small singularity, since it
requires a pre-compression of matter to form this singularity spending
fantastically large energy, which appeared no one knows where from). In [21] it
is concluded: "The current paradigm of physical knowledge is obsolete and
is subject to inevitable replacement based on the transition to substantial
theoretical models of a deeper level".
The Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter also had influence
on a number of theoretical models in physics. For example, the electrokinetic
model of emergence of the magnetic fields in planets and stars appeared [6, §
15], in which the mechanism of generation of the magnetic field differs
significantly from the known but controversial model of magnetic dynamo.
Another example is the development of the electron-ionic
model of ball lightning [22], [23], as well as of the bead lightning [6, §
1]. At the stellar level of matter the discreteness of stellar
parameters and the quantization of parameters
of cosmic systems are discovered, as the consequence of penetration
of the quantum ideas in the physics of cosmic bodies.
References
1.
Fedosin S.G. Osnovy
sinkretiki: filosofiia nositeleĭ . – Moskva: Editorial URSS, 2003, 464 pages. ISBN 5-354-00375-X.
2.
Robert L. Oldershaw. Self-Similar Cosmological
Model: Introduction and Empirical Tests. International Journal of
Theoretical Physics,1989, Vol. 28, No. 6, 669–694.
3. Fedosin S.G. Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik. – Perm’ : S.G. Fedosin, 1999, 544 pages. ISBN 5-8131-0012-1.
4.
Sukhonos S. I. Scale harmony of the
Universe. – Moskva: Sofia, 2000,
312 pages. ISBN 5-89117-096-5. (in Russian).
5.
Fedosin S.G. The radius of the proton in the
self-consistent model. vixra.org, 03 August 2012, accepted by Hadronic Journal.
6.
Fedosin S.G. Fizicheskie teorii i
beskonechnaia vlozhennost’ materii. – Perm’ : S.G. Fedosin, 2009–2012, 858 pages,
Tabl. 21, Fig.41, Ref. 293. ISBN 978-5-9901951-1-0.
7.
Fedosin S.G. Cosmic Red Shift,
Microwave Background, and New Particles. Galilean Electrodynamics, Spring
2012, Vol. 23, Special Issues No. 1, P. 3–13.
8. Fedosin S.G. Sovremennye problemy fiziki: v poiskakh novykh printsipov. – Moskva.: Editorial URSS, 2002, 192 pages. ISBN 5-8360-0435-8.
9.
Fedosin S.G. Electromagnetic and
Gravitational Pictures of the World. Apeiron, 2007, Vol. 14, No. 4, P. 385–413.
10. Fedosin S.G. Model of Gravitational Interaction in the Concept of Gravitons. Journal of Vectorial Relativity, March 2009, Vol. 4, No. 1, P.1–24.
11. Fedosin S.G. Scale Dimension as the Fifth Dimension of Spacetime. Turkish Journal of Physics, 2012, Vol. 36, No 3, P. 461 – 464.
12. Fedosin S.G. Nositeli zhizni: proiskhozhdenie i ėvoliutsiia. – S.-Peterburg : Dmitriĭ Bulanin, 2007, 104 pages. ISBN 978-5-86007-556-6.
13. Fedosin S.G. The General Theory of Relativity, Metric Theory of Relativity and Covariant Theory of Gravitation: Axiomatization and Critical Analysis. vixra.org, 26 Mar 2011.
14.
Fedosin S.G. The Principle of
Least Action in Covariant Theory of Gravitation. Hadronic Journal, February
2012, Vol. 35, No. 1, P. 35–70.
15. Fedosin S.G. The Hamiltonian in covariant theory of gravitation. Advances in Natural Science, 2012, Vol. 5, No. 4, P. 55 – 75.
16.
Fedosin S.G. Mass,
Momentum and Energy of Gravitational Field. Journal of Vectorial
Relativity, September 2008, Vol. 3, No. 3, P.30–35.
17.
Fedosin S.G. Energy, Momentum,
Mass and Velocity of a Moving Body. vixra.org, 13 Jun 2011.
18. Fedosin S.G. The Principle of Proportionality of Mass and Energy: New Version. Caspian Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 2012, Vol. 1, No. 13, P. 1 – 15.
19. Comments to the book: Fedosin S.G. Fizicheskie teorii i beskonechnaia vlozhennost’ materii. – Perm, 2009, 844 pages. ISBN 978-5-9901951-1-0. (in Russian).
20.
Fedosin S.G. and Kim A.S. The Moment of
Momentum and the Proton Radius. Russian Physics Journal, 2002, Vol. 45, P. 534–538.
21.
Fedosin S.G. Problems
of fundamental physics and possible ways of their solution. Soznanie i
phizicheskay realnost’. (Russian Journal
“Cognition and physical reality”), Vol.
9, No. 2, 2004, P. 34–42.
22.
Fedosin S.G., Kim A.S. The Physical
Theory of Ball Lightning. Applied Physics (Russian Journal), No. 1, 2001,
P. 69 – 87.
23. Sergei G. Fedosin, Anatolii S. Kim. Electron-Ionic Model of Ball Lightening . Journal of new energy, 2001, Vol. 6, No. 1, P. 11–18.
Source: http://sergf.ru/essen.htm